Dirty Facts About Samples of Essay Format Revealed

Dirty Facts About Samples of Essay Format Revealed What to Expect From Samples of Essay Format? Next comes the all-important thesis statement that contains a clear outlining of what facets of the author's argument you will be discussing. An essay outline is a set of ideas and ideas applicable to the subject issue. Occasionally a superior instance of what you're attempting to achieve is well worth a 1000 words of advice! Regardless of what's the aim of your essay, there's a preset number of points which you will be expected to tackle. The Fundamentals of Samples of Essay Format Revealed The debut in a typical essay form should permit the reader understand what the topic of the paper is. In case the source is written by multiple authors, then you ought to state last names of them all, at least in the very first reference within the essay. There are essentials in every single form of essay you have to take note. 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Short Run And Long Run Effects - 1405 Words

Short Run and Long Run Effects In the short run, both global demand and supply of oil are relatively inelastic because it is difficult for them to make large adjustments to price changes in a short period of time. When oil price rises, oil consumers, such as manufacturing firms and households, may not be able to reduce their demand for oil immediately. For example, individuals still need to drive to work and manufacturing firms with long-term contracts still need to run machinery to meet target output. Similarly, an increase in oil price would not stimulate oil supply in the short run. Additional supply generally requires the exploration of new reserves and construction of new infrastructure for delivery which require substantial†¦show more content†¦Simultaneously, traditional manufacturing sectors would suffer from rising input costs and reduced competitiveness in the international market. The net effect would be a decrease in total real exports. Moreover, the reallocation of resources, labor and capita l would occur in favor of oil industry. The extent of these long run effects would depend on the magnitude of initial price shock and the duration of price increases. Impacts of Rising Oil Prices on Canadian Output A significant increase in oil price would have little impact on Canadian overall output but large regional and sectoral implications. The oil-producing provinces would benefit from rising income while the oil-consuming ones would suffer due to the higher cost of living and production. This would also lead to reallocation of capital and labor across energy and other industries. Potential impacts are expected to be more pronounced in the long run than in the short run because of relative inelasticity of oil demand and supply in the short run. Canada is the world’s fifth-largest oil producer, with daily production of more than 3.6 million barrels in 2015 (Statistics Canada). Despite large national production, Canada only produces about 5% of world’s total daily production and thus does not have large influencing power on the international oil price. Since February 2016, oil price has shown an upward trend. It soared from USD$29.44 per barrel in February 2016 to USD$54.45 per barrel in FebruaryShow MoreRelatedAggregate Demand and Aggregate Supply911 Words   |  4 Pagesand Aggregate Supply 11. For each of following events, explain the short-run and the long-run effects on the output and the price level, assuming policymakers take no action. (a) The stock market declines sharply, reducing consumers’ wealth. AS1 AS2 AD1 AD2 Y2 Y1 P1 P2 P3 LRAS A B C P AD-AS diagram Output 0 Since the stock market declines sharply, the people’ wealth are being affected. In short run, it leads to a fall in aggregate demand which would shift aggregate-demandRead MoreAs/Ad Model1332 Words   |  6 PagesEconomists who focused on the short run * John Maynard Keynes - their leading advocate * the originator of macroeconomics as a separate discipline from micro * Classical Economists – economists who focused on long-run issues such as growth * Aggregate Demand Management – government’s attempt to control the aggregate level of spending in the economy * Equilibrium Income – the level of income toward which the economy gravitates in the short run because of the cumulative cyclesRead MoreAggregate Demand And Aggregate Supply1154 Words   |  5 Pagesto answer a single question at the end of a study week. But being able to make a brief summary, on the other hand, will steer you up. This week work was in the domain of aggregate demand and aggregate supply: the long run and the short run, recessionary and inflationary gaps and long-run economic equilibrium, determining the level of consumption and aggregate expenditures and aggregate demand. I have been able to retain that aggregate demand is the total quantity of goods and services that a householdRead MoreThe Positive Relationship Between Inflation And Inflation1067 Words   |  5 Pagesother. In many cases, the combination of these variables can have an unexpected effect on the economy. One of these examples can be observed when we compare inflation and unemployment rate. To establish this comparison in a short-run period of time, it will be beneficial to use the Phillip Curve. This curve can be used as a tool to represent the positive relationship between inflation and unemployment in the short-run. 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Correct Answer:   Ã‚   It leads to increased price level, but there is no change in real GDP. Question 2 1 out of 1 points Which of the following would make the price level decrease and real GDP increase? Answer Selected Answer:   Ã‚   Long-run aggregate supply shifts rightRead MoreMicroeconomics Essay1164 Words   |  5 Pagesincreased substantially in the last three years, as a result of that; there have been apparent changes in the demand for electricity for the consumers and it has affected the producers supply market. In the following essay, we are going to look at the effect of the increase in the price of electricity in South Africa, using the supply and demand framework. The reason for the increase of the price of electricity is to balance out the supply and demand of electricity. The National Energy Regulators of SouthRead More. Amos Mccoy Is Currently Raising Corn on His 100-Acre Farm and Earning an Accounting Profit of $100 Per Acre. However, If He Raised Soybeans, He Could Earn $200 Per Acre. Is He Currently Earning an Economic Profit? Why or Why Not?890 Words   |  4 Pagesfor your own Internet business. What will be your fixed and variable costs? Briefly discuss. 5. Explain the shape of the long-run average cost curve. How firms use the long-run cost curve to make choices about production? 6. What is the relationship between marginal cost and average cost? Briefly explain. 7. What distinguishes a firms short run period from its long run priod? Briefly explain. 8. As a farmer, you must decide how many times during the year to plant a new crop. Also, you mustRead MoreThe Effect Of Monetary Policy On Determination Of Coal Prices1013 Words   |  5 PagesTo examine the effect of monetary policy on determination of coal prices in the U.S., we rely on a dynamic framework of cointegrated vector autoregression (CVAR). The prerequisite requirement for the application of the CVAR approach is that the selected variables must be nonstationary (i.e., I(1) series). The presence of a unit root in the variables is thus tested using the Dickey Fuller generalized least squares (DF-GLS) test (Elliott et al., 1996). Panel A of Table 1 reports the results of theRead MoreThe Snap ( Supplemental Nutrition Assistance Program ) And Wic ( Women, Infants, Children ) Programs864 Words   |  4 Pageschanges on the supply and demand of rice. In the short run the price of rice will rise and the demand curve of rice will shift outward. This effect will take place beca use of SNAP’s proposed limitations. If the members of SNAP are limited to only food staples they will find themselves demanding more rice than before. This shift will cause an upward movement along the supply curve. There will be an increase in the quantity of rice supplied in the long run because the demand will have grown from the limitations

Incentivise Employees and Reduce Labour Turnover free essay sample

To investigate to what extent Accenture can tailor its remuneration package to staff in order to reduce labour turnover and incentivise key employees. 1. 2 Research Objectives In order to answer this aim, the following research objectives have been set: †¢ To understanding the main theories governing reward management, including understanding how reward management can influence retention and work motivation. †¢ To understand key aspects of the reward management processes, including assessing job size and relativities, grade and pay structure, performance management, contingent pay, and employee pensions and benefits. To understand the reward management process and its affect on retention and work motivation. †¢ To assess the various remuneration packages offered within Accenture to its employees and their fit within the competitive landscape within which the company competes, as well as the resources that it can draw on internally. †¢ To analyse the extent to whic h Accenture’s remuneration packages help it to reduce labour turnover and improve employee engagement, addressing its strategic objectives. We will write a custom essay sample on Incentivise Employees and Reduce Labour Turnover or any similar topic specifically for you Do Not WasteYour Time HIRE WRITER Only 13.90 / page Chapter Two – Literature Review The aim of this chapter is to set out the main theories governing reward management. In particular, focus is placed on the links between corporate strategy, HR strategy and reward strategy, which guide the type of remuneration package that would be most effective within a particular firm. The importance of the employment relationship is then discussed, including the damage that volition of the psychological contract can cause in terms of labour turnover and de-motivation. Finally, financial and non-financial ewards are discussed in order to separate the intrinsic and extrinsic motivators that are essential in incentivising key employees. 2. 1 Reward Management â€Å"Reward management is concerned with the formulation and implementation of strategies and policies that aim to reward people fairly, equitably and consistently in accordance with their value to the organization. It deals with the design, implementation and maintenance of reward processes and practices that are geared to t he improvement of organizational, team and individual performance† (Armstrong and Murlis, 2004: 3) With such overarching goals, it is perhaps no surprise that reward management is strategic in nature, affecting the long-term prosperity of the firm. The concept of reward management can be seen to have developed from a number of key proponents. These include Lawler (1990, 2003), Schuster and Zingheim (1992) and Flannery et al. (1996). Lawler (1990, 2003) helped to develop the idea of strategic pay, the notion that reward policies need to be tied into the firm’s business strategy, goals, values and culture. Employees are rewarded for practicing specific behaviours that are favoured by the firm. As these become institutionalised, the firm achieves a greater fit between its business strategy and reward strategy, which enables it to more closely meet customer needs. A key element of this involves creating a virtuous spiral for both employee and employer: â€Å"It is entirely possible to design a reward system that motivates people to work and satisfies them while at the same time contributing to organizational effectiveness† (Armstrong and Murlis, 2004: 5). Schuster and Zingheim (1992) went on to develop this concept of new pay, highlighting some of its fundamental principles. This included the idea of a total compensation program, which tied business strategy with reward strategy in order to reinforcing specific organisation behaviours. Pay was considered to be a lever that could help organisations to embrace change; in this sense, it was a positive force for change. The concept of pay became less static with the introduction of risk-based pay; the idea that pay should be variable depending on performance. At the same time, the individual was no longer the focus of pay, as team-based pay became another important mechanism for guiding organisational performance. Finally, pay became an employee relations issues; employees were no longer simply the target of pay, but became involved in devising the reward culture, the values of the organisation, its culture, and the reward systems that should be put in place accordingly. Finally, Flannery et al. (1996) were influential in developing the concept of dynamic pay although many of their nine compensation (rather than pay, per se) principles should be aligned with the organisation’s strategy, culture and values. However, they emphasised the need to tailor compensation and pay in a more focused manner. Compensation was to be linked to other changes that were planned in the organisation; it should be integrated with other people processes, as well as democratized and demystified. Its effectiveness should be measured and then the reward strategy should be refined and re-refined as appropriate. This new, strategic pay brought with it greater complexity to the practice of reward management: â€Å"It is simply no longer possible to create a set of rewards that is universally appealing to all employees or to address a series of complex business issues through a single set of solutions† (O’Neal, 1998). Nonetheless, reward management had become not so much a necessary evil, but something that an organisation could not do without, bringing with it both positive and mitigating benefits: â€Å"Pay and formal reward policies are one of the most tangible symbols of a company’s culture and employment offering and are inextricably interwoven with them. Therefore they are critical to demonstrating that the employer is delivering on its side of the employment bargain† (Brown, 2001). Therefore, in order to investigate to how Accenture can tailor its remuneration package to improve its employees motivation, as well as reduce labour turnover, it is necessary to understand the different components of reward management and the effect (positive and negative) when these components combine. The principal components of reward management include are set out in the diagram overleaf. These components will act as a framework for the literature review. Figure 1:The Components of Reward Management Source:Armstrong and Murlis (2004) 2. 2 Business / HR Strategy Firms are operating in increasingly unpredictable environments. Despite this, much of strategic management has focused on linear, unidirectional methods and models that suggested that: â€Å"Organisations are systems in which there are clear-cut connections between cause and effect†¦(which) are assumed to generate behaviour that is predictable in principle and that keeps an organisation in a state of dynamic equilibrium in which it is adapted to its environment†¦(thus making it) possible in principle to predict long-term outcomes† (Stacey, 1993: 99, 100). Authors including Peters and Waterman (1982), Porter (1980, 1985), and Burns and Stalker (1994) have all highlighted the ideal of organisation’s operating in a state of stable equilibrium, where success involves harmony, consistency, stability and regularity (Stacey, 1993). However, whilst strategy-making has moved through the one best way method, contingency approaches and those based on the principals of configuration, these have all embraced this unquestioned assumption. Part of the problem is that such wisdom places strategic fit at the centre of the organisation’s thinking ignoring the complexity that organisation’s actually face in practice. Indeed, authors such as Hamel and Prahalad (1989), Miller (1990) and Pascale (1990) have empirically questioned such thinking. Today, the realities of organisational life suggest a different picture from the conventional wisdom: â€Å"Successful organisations operate in states of bounded instability, using ositive and negative feedback to create complex new patterns of behaviour – innovations and new strategic directions†¦(and so) face reasonably predictable short-term futures but totally unknowable long-term ones†¦(which) requires us to review carefully what we mean by decision-making and control, and how we practice both† (Stacey, 1993: 246). This means that organisation’s face a whole host of change situations, which Stacey (1993) characterises as closed , contai ned and open-ended . It also has had a considerable impact on strategic decision-making, which is vital in guiding both corporate strategy and other interlinked strategies, such as HR strategy, reward strategy and so forth. The prescriptive approach to strategy, as indicative of the work of Porter’s (1980, 1985) positioning school of strategic management, suggested that the aim of strategic management was to: â€Å"establish a profitable and sustainable position against the forces the determine industry competition† (Porter, 1985: 1). Broadly, this involved firms analysing the competitive nature of their external environment using an analysis tool such as Porter’s five forces and then positioning the firm to capitalise on one of three generic strategies: low cost, differentiation or focus. However, a number of studies highlighted the limitations of such thinking; that the firm’s external environment is the determinant of firm profitability (Schmalensee, 1985; Rumelt, 1991; Hawawini et al. , 2000). Rather, research exposed the reality that the internal resources of the firm, as well as its relationships with other firms, had a significant impact on firm profitability. These became known as the resource-based view (Teece et al. , 1997) and relational-based view (Dyer and Singh, 1998) of the firm. The resource-based view suggested that competitive advantage was determined by a firm’s ability to: â€Å"accumulate resources and capabilities that are rare, valuable, non-substitutable and difficult to imitate† (Dyer and Singh, 1998: 660). This was a more inside out view that saw a firm’s core competences (Barton, 1995) and unique resources (Teece et al. , 1997) and the drivers of a firm’s strategic decision-making. In a way, the relational-based view built on the resource-based view by suggested that relationships with other firms, which helped to combine firms’ resources across organisational boundaries, would also guide strategy making. These two views of strategic management, the external Porterian view and internal view supported by Barney (1991) and others are important because they inform the choice and perspective taken towards HR strategy within the firm, which inevitably guides reward strategy. This is because strategic human resource management (SHRM) can play a very different role across firms. Hydd and Oppenheim (1990) characterise these differences along a proactive-reactive continuum. The reactive view of SHRM fits with the Porterian view of strategy and the matching model of SHRM. Here, the role that HRM plays within the firm is merely ensuring the employees fit with the firm’s generic strategy. It simply responds to strategic decisions already made, matching an organisation’s five Ps: its philosophy, policies, programs, practices and process and prevent potential: â€Å"role conflict and ambiguity that can interfere with individual performance and organisational effectiveness† (Schuler, 1989: 164). The proactive view of SHRM, on the other hand, which follows the resource-based view of SHRM, is tied to the resource-based view of the firm. Under this view, SHRM has a much more influential role in the strategy process, informing it at all levels. Here, the firm recognises the importance of its human capital and the need to devise ways that HR strategy can leverage this and convert it into intellectual capital, which is of such value to the firm. Indeed, Lei et al. (1996) emphasis how the tacit knowledge of employees: â€Å"can form the basis of competitive advantage. † In really, both the external and interview view of strategic management have their merits. Firms must be able to inform their strategic decision making according to the context of their external environment, but the long-term success of the firm depends on the firm’s ability to leverage its unique resources. As such, this dissertation adopts both perspectives. The external view will be employed in the analysis chapter later to help highlight the context of Accenture’s external environment. However, the interview view will guide the perspective this dissertation adopts towards SHRM, as well as reward strategy. On this basis, the next section highlights the essence of strategic reward. 2. 3 Strategic Reward â€Å"Strategic reward management is the process of looking ahead at what an organization needs to do about its reward policies and practices in the middle or relatively distant future. It is concern with the broader business issues the organization is facing and the general direction in which reward management must go to provide help in dealing with these issues in order to achieve longer-term business goals† (Armstrong and Murlis, 2004: 29). Reward strategy thereby supports and helps to inform corporate and HR strategy. It is important for a number of reasons: First, an organisation must have a clear sense of its future direction or at least some idea of how you are going to get there. According to Kotter (1996), for example, a key role of leaders is to set direction and align employees. Second, the biggest expense for a firm is inevitably its employees, with pay being the most significant pay of this cost. As such, the management of pay can not only have a positive motivational force, but also a detrimental impact on performance and a firm’s cost structure is poorly designed. Third, rewards do have a positive impact on performance where used properly and help leaders in their third role of motivating employees (Kotter, 1999). Finally, it is argued by Cox and Purcell (1998) that reward strategy’s real benefit rests with the blueprint is provides in linking different human resource management policies and practices together, as well as more broadly linking these with other mutually supportive strategies across the firm. Despite the obvious benefit of strategic reward and the need to align it will corporate and HR strategy, the complexities of organisation life make this more difficult that one might anticipate. According to the early school of strategic management, the design and planning schools (and to some extent the positioning school), strategy making was quite a rational process with leaders at the apex of the organisation dictating the future direction of the firm and devising blueprints that the firm should follow to enact them. However, with the greater complexity firms faced in their competitive environment, as indicated by Stacey (1993) above, together with the introduction of a more internal view of the firm (Barney, 1991), it became more realistic to see strategy making as an inherently irrational process. Certainly, Hendry and Pettigrew (1986) question the extent to which rational HR strategies and blueprints can be drawn up if these are based on an already irrational process. Strategic fit may not only be difficult to attain, but as indicated by the changing nature of strategy, it may no longer be that desirable. As Collins and Porras (1999) suggest of great, visionary companies that have lasted the test of time, a key element of their success lies with preserving the core whilst stimulating progress. As such, it is important to maintain some fit, some resemblance of the status quo, what the firms does well, but it is equally vital to stretch the organisation strategic to set it up for a changing future. Even at the level of reward strategy itself, there are many barriers to implementing an effective strategy. Armstrong and Murlis (2004) argue that: â€Å"There is always a danger of reward strategy promising much but achieving little. The rhetoric contained in the guiding principles may not turn into reality. Espoused values may not become values-in-use the things that are meant to happen may not happen. Reward strategy can too easily be unrealistic. It may appear to offer something worthwhile but the resources (money, people and time) and capability to make it happen are not available. It may include processes such as performance management that only work if line managers want to make them work and are capable of making them work. It may be met by total opposition from the trade unions† (31). Furthermore, reward strategy plays a guiding role in balancing the transactional and relational aspects of the employment relationship through developing a total reward approach: The total reward concept emphasizes the importance of considering all aspects of reward as an integrated and coherent whole. Each of the elements of total reward, namely base pay, pay contingent on performance, competence or contribution, employee benefits and non-financial rewards, which include intrinsic rewards from the employment environment and the work itself, are linked together. A total reward approach is holistic; reliance is not placed on one or two reward mechanisms or levers operating in isolation. Account is taken of all the ways in which people can be rewarded and obtain satisfaction through their work† (Armstrong and Murlis, 2004: 11). The employment relationship will be discussed in more detail in the section to follow, as will its transactional and relational aspects in subsequent sections, but it is worth noting as this stage that if Accenture is to appropriately tailor its remuneration package to labour turnover and incentivise key employees, it must devise a reward strategy that provides an effective balance of transactional and relational rewards that fit with the psychological contract it has with its employees. This psychological contract is the essence of the employment relationship between a firm and its employees and forms the basis of the next section. 2. 4 The Employment Relationship Contractual relationships have been studied across a range of disciplines (MacNeil, 1985). Such contractual (or exchange) relationships between parties have often been a substitute for trust (Okun, 1981) and have helped in developing organisational forms (Stinchcombe, 1990). In an employment setting, the formation of contracts that were unpinned by a psychological attachment between employers and employers became known as the psychological contract (Argyris, 1960). Whilst there has been relatively little agreement on a single definition of the term psychological contract (Conway, 1996; Roehling, 1996; Guest, 1998), the definition provided by Robinson and Rousseau (1994) is applied here. On this basis, the psychological contract depicts: â€Å"An individual’s belief regarding the terms and conditions of a reciprocal exchange agreement between that focal person and another party†¦ a belief that some form of a promise has been made and that the terms and conditions of the contract have been accepted by both parties† (246). The psychological contract helps to formalise the meaning, interpretations and significance of the agreed terms and conditions of an employment relationship between contracted parties. In this sense, it acts as a set of promises and unwritten expectation committing one to guide future action (Farnsworth, 1982; Schein, 1988). However, it is perhaps useful to think of its in holistic terms rather than a description of contractual terms that parties are bound by. For example, Guest (1998) highlights the difficulty that current definitions of the psychological contract pose when used for assessment: We run into difficulties as soon as we start to examined the definitions of the psychological contract†¦the first problem that emerges from a comparison of definitions is that the psychological contract may be about perceptions, expectations, beliefs, promises and obligations† (650 -1). Irrespective of the ambiguity, different definitions of the psychological contract do have some similar characteristics: First, the psychological contract is a useful concept to understand the contractual relationship between two parties (Guest, 1988; Rousseau, 1998). Second, the psychological contract is not a fixed term per se, which enables it to be used and interpreted in many different ways, allowing firms to applied it as appropriate (Rousseau, 1989, 1995). Third, the psychological contract is dynamic, helping to explain how employment relationships change over time within firms (Hiltrop, 1996). Finally, the psychological contract highlights how employment relationships develop and/or degenerate (Shore and Tetrick, 1994). The psychological contract is made up of both transactional and relational elements (Rousseau, 1990). In terms of analysing the remuneration package at Accenture, understanding the content of the psychological contract becomes vital. According to the transactional view: â€Å"The employee provides skill and effort to the employer in return for which the employer provides the employee with a salary or a wage, the traditional economist’s concept of the effort bargain† (Armstrong and Murlis, 2004: 33). On the other hand, the relational view suggests that: â€Å"Intangible relationships are developed that take place within the work environment and are affected by the process of leadership, communications and giving employees a voice, and by how jobs are designed and expectations of behaviour and performance are agreed† (Armstrong and Murlis, 2004: 33). A study by Herriot et al. (1997) exposed twelve categories explaining the content of employer obligations and seven for employees. The obligations expected of employers included: providing adequate induction and training (training), ensuring fairness of selection, appraisal, promotion and redundancy procedures (fairness), allowing time off to meet personal or family needs (needs), consulting and communicating with employees on matters which affect them (consult), having minimal interference with employees in terms of how they do their job (discretion), acting in a personally and social responsible way towards employees (humanity), giving recognition of or reward for special contribution or long service (recognition), provision of a safe and congenial work environment (environment), fairness and consistency in the application of rules and disciplinary procedures (justice), equitable pay with respect to market values and consistency awarded across the organization (pay), fairness and consistency in the administration of the benefit systems (benefits) and the organization trying hard to provide what job security th ey can (security). Employees, on the other hand, were expect: to work the hours contracted (hours), to do a good job in terms of quality and quantity (work), to deal honesty with clients and with the organization (honesty), staying with the organization, guarding its reputation and putting its interests first (loyalty), treating the organization’s property in a careful way (property), dressing and behaving correctly with customers and colleagues (self-presentation) and being willing to go beyond one’s own job description, especially in an emergency (flexibility). The study highlighted the need for the employer to deliver on its obligations if it was to expect the employee to do the same. It also emphasised the importance of balancing both relational and transactional obligations. Understanding the nature and content of the psychological contract is mportant for any firm wanting to get the best out of its employees, but knowing the implications of breaking that contract is also important (Morrison and Robinson, 1997). This is particularly relevant in the competitive environment that firms face, where their changing needs sometimes put pressure on the psychological contract, as Kickul (2001) explains: â€Å"Underlying all of these changes, organizations are finding that they must manage, renegotiate, and in some cases, abrogate the employment relationship that they have established with their employees† (289). Research has indicated that around 55 to 69 percent of employees stated that they felt the psychological contract between the firm and themselves had been violated (Robinson et al. , 1994; Rousseau, 1994; Conway and Briner, 1998; Conway et al. , 1999). When the psychological contract is broken it directly affects morale, trust, job satisfaction, commitment and motivation (Mowday et al. , 1979; Rousseau, 1989, Rousseau and Parks, 1993; Robinson and Rousseau, 1994; Robinson, 1996). Furthermore, Porter and Lawler (1986) state that volition of the psychological contract can lead the employee to no longer believe or rely on inducement promised by the employers. This is particularly important in terms of understanding how remuneration packages at Accenture can incentivise, because it suggests that if the company has not maintained its psychological contract with employees, incentivise will not necessary achieve the organisation’s goals. Motivation and Financial and Non-Financial Rewards Increasing motivation and raising levels of commitment and engagement are key organizational imperatives. The development of reward management policies, structures and practices will be underpinned by assumptions about how people can best be motivated to deliver high levels of performances, discretionary effort and contribution. These assumptions may not be articulated but the reward philosophies and policies of an organization can be no better than the motivational theories and beliefs upon which they are based† (Armstrong and Murlis, 2004: 56). Managerial approaches to motivation have traversed the traditional model, human relations model towards the human resources model (Porter et al. , 2003). Whilst all schools are still in use, the human resources model (Miles, 1965) is most applicable today. Despite criticisms, it adopts the view that humans are very complex individuals, which are motivated by a wide range of different financial and non-financial rewards. Under this view, individuals want to contribute to their work, but also desire greater levels of task variety, autonomy, responsibility and personal decision-making. The role of the organisation is not so much to motivate, but not to de-motivate. As Kotter (1996) states, the role of the leader is to align the organisation such that its employees become self-motivated whilst ensuring that policies and practices do not de-motivate staff.

Roles of Women in History Essay Example

Roles of Women in History Essay In theses letters you could see how different people had different opinions on the roles of women and their rights. Abigail believed women should have the same rights as a man and told her husband, friend , and uncle how she felt. Men thought of themselves superiorto women because society said women need to stay home and take care of the family. This is why they believed they were the only ones who needed an education and rights. Abigail first starts talking to her husband about how he needs to treat women with respect. She says â€Å"I desire you would remember the ladies, and be more generous and favorable to them than your ancestors.†(Shi and Mayer, 127) then she proceeds to talk about how if men could, they would be tyrants. Also saying ladies will be determined to form a rebellion and will not be held back by laws they already have no voice or representation in.(Shi and Mayer, 127)After Abigails conversation with her husband, she writes to her friend and tells her how she is going to get her to join her petition to make a new government and new set of laws. (Shi and Mayer, 128) Abigail Adams is very passionate about what she believes because once again, she says â€Å" We would not hold ourselves bound by any laws in which we had neither a voice, nor representation.† (Shi and Mayer, 128) We will write a custom essay sample on Roles of Women in History specifically for you for only $16.38 $13.9/page Order now We will write a custom essay sample on Roles of Women in History specifically for you FOR ONLY $16.38 $13.9/page Hire Writer We will write a custom essay sample on Roles of Women in History specifically for you FOR ONLY $16.38 $13.9/page Hire Writer Abigail sends another letter to her husband almost as if she was irritated by him and his actions. She tells him she thinks he was not very generous to the ladies because, he was proclaiming peace and goodwill to the men but insisted upon retaining an absolute power over the wives.(Shi and Mayer, 129) Then she explains that the neglect for education isnt just for women but for poor children male or female, also saying that if the people want heroes, statesmen, and philosophers then they should start teaching women. (Shi and Mayer, 130) Abigail also states in the writing to her husband that if they give the women a chance then a great benefi

Biography of Darius the Great, Persian King

Biography of Darius the Great, Persian King Darius the Great (550 BCE–486 BCE) was the fourth  Persian king  of the  Achaemenid Empire. He ruled the empire at its height, when its lands included much of  West Asia, the  Caucasus, as well as parts of the  Balkans, Black Sea  coastal regions, North Caucasus,  and Central Asia. Under Darius rule, the kingdom stretched to the  Indus Valley  in the far east and portions of north and northeast Africa including  Egypt, Libya,  and Sudan. Fast Facts: Darius the Great Known For: Persian king  at the height of the  Achaemenid EmpireAlso Known As: Darius I, DarayavauÃ… ¡, DariamauiÃ… ¡, DariiamuÃ… ¡, DrywhwÃ… ¡Born: 550 BCEParents:  Hystaspes,  RhodoguneDied:  486 BCE  in IranChildren: Darius had at least 18 childrenSpouses:  Parmys,  Phaidime,  Atossa,  Artystone,  PhratagoneNotable Quote: Force is always beside the point when subtlety will serve. Early Life Darius was born in 550 BCE His father was Hystaspes and his grandfather was Arsames, both of whom were Achaemenids. In ascending the throne, Darius noted in his own autobiography that he traced his lineage to Achaemenes. From long ago, said Darius, We are princely, from long ago our family was royal. Eight of my family were formerly kings, I am the ninth; nine are we in two lines. That was a bit of propaganda: Darius achieved his rule of the Achmaenids chiefly by overcoming his opponent and rival for the throne Gaumata. Dariuss first wife was a daughter of his good friend Gobryas, although we dont know her name. His other wives included Atossa and Artystone, both daughters of Cyrus; Parmys, the daughter of Cyruss brother Bardiya; and the noblewomen Phratagune and Phaidon. Darius had at least 18 children. Accession of Darius Darius ascended to the Achmaenid throne at the tender age of 28, despite the fact that his father and grandfather were still alive. His predecessor was Cambyses, the son of Cyrus the Great and Cassandane, who ruled the Achaemenid empire between 530 and 522 BCE Cambyses died from natural causes, but he left his throne in dispute. By right, Cambyses heir should have been his brother Bardiya- Darius claimed Bardiya had been slain by Cambyses, but somebody showed up claiming he was the missing brother and heir to the throne. According to Dariuss version of events, the imposter Gaumata arrived after Cambyses death and claimed the vacated throne. Darius slew Gautama, thereby restoring the rule to the family. Darius was not a close relative of the family so it was important for him to legitimize his rule by claiming descent from an ancestor of Cyrus. This and details of Darius violent treatment of Gautama and the rebels are inscribed on a large relief at Bisitun (Behistun), in three different languages: Old Persian, Elamite, and Akkadian. Carved into a cliff face 300 feet above the Royal Road of the Achaemenids, the text was not legible to the passersby, although the images of Gautama being subjected certainly were. Darius saw that the cuneiform text was widely circulated throughout the Persian Empire. In the Behistun Inscription, Darius explains why he has the right to rule. He says he has the Zoroastrian god Ahura Mazda on his side. He claims royal blood lineage through four generations to the eponymous Achaemenes, the father of Teispes, who was the great-grandfather of Cyrus. Darius says his own father was Hystaspes, whose father was Arsanes, whose father was Ariamnes, a son of this Teispes. Notable Accomplishments Darius expanded the Persian empire from the Sakas beyond Sogdiana to the Kush, and from Sind to Sardis. He also refined and expanded the Persian satrapy form of administrative rule, dividing his empire into 20 pieces and providing each piece an authority (generally a relative) to rule over them, and placing additional security measures to reduce revolt. Darius moved the Persian capital from Pasagardae to Persepolis, where he had built a palace and a treasury, where the enormous wealth of the Persian empire would be safely stored for 200 years, only to be looted by Alexander the Great in 330 BCE. He constructed the Royal Road of the Achaemenids from Susa to Sardis, connecting the far-flung satrapies and building staffed way stations so no one had to ride more than a day to deliver the post. Additionally, Darius: Completed the first version of the Suez Canal, leading from the Nile to the Red Sea;Was renowned for innovations in water control, including an extensive set of irrigation canals and wells known as qanats throughout his empire;Was known as a law-giver when serving as the king of Egypt during the Late Period. Death and Legacy Darius died in 486 BCE following an illness at about the age of 64. His coffin was buried at Naqsh-e Rostam. On his tomb is inscribed a memorial, in cuneiform script in Old Persian and Akkadian, stating what Darius wanted people to say about himself and his relationship with Ahura Mazda. It also lists the people over whom he claimed power: Media, Elam, Parthia, Aria, Bactria, Sogdia, Chorasmia, Drangiana, Arachosia, Sattagydia, Gandara, India, the haoma-drinking Scythians, the Scythians with pointed caps, Babylonia, Assyria, Arabia, Egypt, Armenia, Cappadocia, Lydia, the Greeks, the Scythians across the sea, Thrace, the sun hat-wearing Greeks, the Libyans, the Nubians, the men of Maka and the Carians. Dariuss successor was not his first born, but rather Xerxes, the oldest son of his first wife, Atossa, making Xerxes a grandson of Cyrus the Great. Both Darius and his son Xerxes participated in the Greco-Persian or Persian Wars. The last king of the Achaemenid Dynasty was Darius III, who ruled from 336–330 BCE Darius III was a descendant of Darius II (ruled 423-405 BCE), who was a descendant of King Darius I. Sources Cahill, Nicholas. The Treasury at Persepolis: Gift-Giving at the City of the Persians. American Journal of Archaeology 89.3 (1985): 373–89. Print.Colburn, Henry P. Connectivity and Communication in the Achaemenid Empire. Journal of the Economic and Social History of the Orient 56.1 (2013): 29–52. Print.Daryaee, Touraj. The Construction of the Past in Late Antique Persia. Historia: Zeitschrift fà ¼r Alte Geschichte 55.4 (2006): 493–503. Print.Magee, Peter, et al. The Achaemenid Empire in South Asia and Recent Excavations at Akra in Northwest Pakistan. American Journal of Archaeology 109.4 (2005): 711–41. Print.Olmstead, A. T. Darius and His Behistun Inscription. The American Journal of Semitic Languages and Literatures 55.4 (1938): 392–416. Print.

How Runoff Primaries Work in US Politics

How Runoff Primaries Work in US Politics Runoff primaries are held in nearly a dozen states when no candidate in a race for their partys nomination for state or federal office is able to win a simple majority of the vote. Runoff primaries amount to a second round of voting, but only the two top vote-getters appear on the ballot - a move that ensures one of them will win support from at least 50 percent of voters. All other states require the nominee to win only a plurality, or the most number of votes in the race.   This requirement that you have a majority vote is hardly unique. We require the president to get a majority in the  Electoral College. Parties have to get majorities to choose presidents. As John Boehner can explain, you also need to have majority support in the  House  to become  speaker, Charles S.  Bullock III, a political scientist at the University of Georgia, said during a 2017 panel discussion held by the National Conference of State Legislatures. Runoff primaries are  most common in  the South and date back to single-party rule. The use of runoff primaries is more likely when there are more than two candidates seeking the nomination for a statewide seat such as governor or U.S. senator. The requirement that party nominees win at least 50 percent of the vote is seen as a deterrent to electing extremist candidates, but critics argue holding second primaries to achieve this goal is costly and often alienates large swaths of potential voters.   10States That Use Runoff Primaries The states that require nominees for state and federal office to win a certain threshold  of votes and hold runoff primaries when that doesnt happen, according to FairVote and the National Conference of State Legislatures, are: Alabama: Requires nominees to win at least 50 percent of the vote.  Arkansas:  Requires nominees to win at least 50 percent of the vote.  Georgia:  Requires nominees to win at least 50 percent of the vote.  Louisiana:  Requires nominees to win at least 50 percent of the vote.  Mississippi:  Requires nominees to win at least 50 percent of the vote.  North Carolina:  Requires nominees to win at least 40 percent of the vote.  Oklahoma:  Requires nominees to win at least 50 percent of the vote.  South Carolina:  Requires nominees to win at least 50 percent of the vote.  South Dakota:  Requires certain nominees to win at least 35 percent of the vote.  Texas:  Requires nominees to win at least 50 percent of the vote.   History of Runoff Primaries The use of runoff primaries dates to the South in the early 1900s, when Democrats held a lock on electoral politics. With little competition from Republican or third parties, the Democrats essentially chose their candidates not in the general election but the primaries; whoever won the nomination was guaranteed electoral victory. Many southern states set artificial thresholds to protect white Democratic candidates from being toppled by other candidates who won with mere pluralities. Others such as Arkansas authorized the use of runoff elections to block extremists and hate groups including the Ku Klux Klan from winning party primaries. Justification forRunoff Primaries Runoff primaries are used for the same reasons today: they force candidates to achieve support from a broader portion of the electorate, thereby reducing the chance voters will elect extremists. According to Wendy Underhill, an expert on  elections and redistricting,  and researcher  Katharina Owens Hubler: The requirement for a majority vote (and thus the potential for a primary runoff) was intended to encourage candidates to broaden their appeal to a wider range of voters, to reduce the likelihood of electing candidates who are at the ideological extremes of a party, and to produce a nominee who may be more electable in the general election. Now that the South is solidly Republican, the same issues still hold true. Some states have also moved to open primaries to try to reduce partisanship. Downsides of Runoff Primaries Turnout data show that participation declines in runoff elections, meaning those who do turnout might not fully represent the interests of the district as a whole. And, of course, it costs money to hold primaries. So taxpayers in states that hold runoffs are on the hook for not one but two primaries. Instant Runoff Primaries An alternative to runoff primaries growing in popularity is the instant runoff. Instant runoffs require the use of ranked-choice voting in which voters identify their first, second and third preferences. The initial count uses every voters top choice. If no candidate hits the 50-percent threshold to secure the party nomination, the candidate with the fewest votes is dropped and a recount is held. This process is repeated until one of the remaining candidates gets a majority of votes. Maine became the first state to adopt ranked-choice voting in 2016; it uses the method in state races including those for​ the legislature.

Digital Radiography Research Paper Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 750 words

Digital Radiography - Research Paper Example hich relies on a digital media to capture and present the pictures it takes, rather than the more classic use of photographic film† (McGuigan, n.d.). There is not much difference between the examination styles of digital radiography and screen-film radiography from the patient’s perspective. The presence of a digital receptor and a computer system makes digital radiography different to screen-film radiography. Some of the main components of the digital radiography system include a digital image receptor, a digital image management and processing system, a display device, and data storage device. There are a number of advantages of digital radiography over screen-film radiography. Some of the key advantages of using digital radiography system include improved contrast, immediate observation of images, facility of magnifying the images, facility to transfer the images to other computer systems, real time interpretation of the images, better abnormality detection ability, reduced image processing time, and facility of storing images using computer technology. â€Å"Pulling up specific stored radiographic images from a comput er database is easy because of the highly organized nature of computer file storage† (Christensen, 2004). One of the key advantages of digital radiography is that of its efficacy in contemporary screening practices. A faster and more accurate examination is possible through digital method of radiography, which not only results in the reduction of the test duration but also provides comfort to the patients due to reduced examination time. Denise and Farleigh (2005) states, â€Å"One of the principal advantages of any digital imaging system is the separation of image acquisition, process and display, allowing optimization of each of these steps†. Speed is one of the major advantages of digital radiography system. The radiologists can produce the images very quickly using digital technology as compared to screen-film radiography. Digital

I am going back to my school and giving a speech to the senior class Essay

I am going back to my school and giving a speech to the senior class. I must either Motivate, Inspire, or Entertain them - Essay Example As the senior class of this school, you are grown and mature. In the outside world, you will not have the luxury of delaying your responsibilities. You can’t be late for job, bills have to be payed on time. It is a decision you have to make today; whether to change for the better and look ahead to the future, or be conformable with the idea that we are a slacker generation. You should be the difference since you are the most senior in the school and the role models to the rest. When the time will come that you will have to leave this place; the world should know that your class will not hold back since you will be the once making the difference out there. It is important that at this point you have come to appreciate the fact there is a solution for every problem, no matter how big or small it may be. For every solution that is provided, someone or something will always be gaining and by doing this, you will be making the school a better place than you found it. All of you may not end up in college, and success does not come at an instance. But what I can assure you is that if you use your time in school wisely, you will succeed in the long run. Don’t waste your time in school, you have a very little time left to make things

Different Kinds of Personality Essay Example for Free

Different Kinds of Personality Essay The Duke and Knight play crucial parts in the scenes and themes of both poems. They have very contrasting personalities to one another. The knight is very gullible and naive- in falling in love with a woman he knows is an evil and unreal person- though he can do nothing to prevent this. In a way, his personality would suit that of the Duchess, as she too is very nai ve. The Duke in that instance though is completely the opposite. He is very wealthy, manipulative and arrogant and is only interested in impressing people. This is shown throughout the whole poem, as he is obviously speaking to someone he feels is important about his wife and her murder. He even ends the poem by boasting about a bronze statue, of Neptune taming a sea horse cast by Claus of Innsbruck who was probably someone famous in those days. The two men are in quite similar situations though; having both just lost a love in failed relationships, though the loss of the Dukes love was deliberate. They are also members of the nobility, being a Duke and Knight. However, there is another difference between them and that is that the knight appreciated natural gifts and wasnt ruled by his status. The language and context of both poems contrast with each other too. La Belle Dame Sans Merci is written as a ballad. It is designed to be read aloud and to be easy on the ear. This particular ballad differs from others because it has been made to sound as if it had been written 200-300 years before John Keats was even born. It is also written in quatrain but in the pattern of ABCB and revolves around a question and answer. This poem is very ambivalent so it makes you think about what the poem means and contains endstopped punctuation to make a bigger impression upon the reader. My Last Duchess is a dramatic monologue written in rhyming couplets although the endings dont always end with rhyming. The poem also contains run on lines with no particular punctuation at intervals, unlike in La Belle Dame. The background sources used by Keats and Browning are very unlike. There is a lot of history used in both poems. At the time Robert Browning wrote My last Duchess there was a large influence in Italy in particular over possessions and status. The story of the Borgias family who paid people to kill those they did not like or were not on friendly terms with, also gave him ideas. John Keats, though, was influenced by the thoughts and beliefs of people in 1795-1821. This was the time in which legends such as monsters and witches were at the centre of everyones minds. It was the idea of witches, which probably gave Keats the name of his poem. In those times, the word for witch was Bedlam which sounds like Belle Dame, so that could be significant. So, altogether there are many similarities and contrasts between La Belle Dame Sans Merci and My Last Duchess and both teach valuable lessons about life but also give insights into the lives and beliefs of some people in those times.

Edgar Allan Poe Essay -- Edgar Allan Poe Structure Structuralism

Edgar Allan Poe Though an innumerable amount of interpretations of any given text might be drawn from a variety of perspectives, a structuralist analysis of two of Poe’s works help place their symbols within a theme related to myth and heroism. Peter Barry attempts to define structuralism succinctly by narrowing it down as â€Å"the belief that things cannot be understood in isolation—they have to be seen in the context of the larger structures they are part of†; he goes on to add that â€Å"meaning is always an attribute of things, in the literal sense that meanings are ATTRIBUTED to the things by the human mind, not contained within them† (39). One might attempt to further narrow this idea (ironically) by quoting the famous line, â€Å"Everything is relative,† which is to say, all reality is contingent upon the perceiver. The context in which that reality is being perceived becomes the point of interest, so that, in regard to literature, â€Å"there is a constant movement away from the interpretation of the individual literary work and a parallel drive towards understanding the larger, abstract structures which contain them† (Barry, 40). The question becomes not what, but how. It is interesting, then, to further define the crux of this theory in search of what conclusion a modern structuralist reading of a pre-structuralist author, namely Edgar Allan Poe, might yield. Structuralism itself is defined as â€Å"modern† but through its own origins â€Å"following the widely discussed applications of structural analysis to mythology by the anthropologist Claude Là ¨vi-Strauss† can be attributed to relatively recent intellectual movements, which then reflect back on the writings of Poe, perhaps evidencing inspiration for the theory in the firs... ...l and follows its progression panel by panel. Works Cited Baldick, Chris. â€Å"Structuralism.† OXFORD CONCISE DICTIONARY OF LITERARY TERMS. 2nd edition. New York: Oxford University Press, 2001. 245-246. Barry, Peter. â€Å"Structuralism.† BEGINNING THEORY: AN INTRODUCTION TO LITERARY AND CULTURAL THEORY. 2nd edition. Manchester: Manchester University Press, 2002. 39-60. Coogan, Peter M. â€Å"The Secret Origin of the Superhero: The Origin and Evolution of the Superhero Genre in America.† AMERICAN QUARTERLY. Vol 55, Iss. 4. College Park, December 2003. 801 Poe, Edgar Allan. â€Å"The Tell-Tale Heart.† RETELLINGS: A THEMATIC Literature Anthology. New York: McGraw-Hill, 2004. 404-407; â€Å"The Cask of Amontillado.† Classroom handout (SUNY Potsdam, Fall 2005, LITR 300, Dr. McNutt). 463-467.

The Effect of Marijuana Legalization in Colorado and Washington on the Global Economy

The Effect of Marijuana Legalization in Colorado and Washington on the Global Economy Marijuana has been one of the most highly debated topics for years, many people don’t understand the reasoning for its prohibition and others stand strong on their beliefs that it should not under any circumstances be legalized. Whatever your opinion is on the subject in the most recent election two states- Colorado and Washington – both legalized the drug for recreational use and this has caused major debates and will have a major impact on the global economy.As someone from Colorado, this subject has come up many times so I figured I’d do a little research on it and see the real implications of this law. The Mexican drug cartel is one of the largest illicit drug importation operations in the world, making billions of dollars annually trafficking drugs across the border into the United States and around a quarter of their profit is from Marijuana. Colorado and Washington are bo th relatively far from the Mexican American border but there is still a significant amount of import into these states.The fact that this drug is now legal means that the cartel will lose millions if not billions of dollars which as a result will make the cartel smaller. No one can complain about this but the only problem is that now they will have to rely on other, more dangerous drugs, to make a profit. The Mexican government realizes this issue but they also realize that with marijuana being legal they can make the money, which would have otherwise gone to the cartel through the legal import of the drug.The only problem is that under federal law cannabis is still illegal and so as a result so is the importation of it. If this law changes – which is highly likely – the Mexican government will have a major source of revenue that they can capitalize on. The trend is indicating that total legalization will be happening in the near future. Many South American countries, which have been hesitant in the past to pass any laws concerning cannabis, have since reconsidered as a result of the legalization in the two American states.Countries such as Argentina and Uruguay are looking into changing their laws as they see the potential revenue that can come as a result of legalization. Most experts believe that the southern most countries will legalize the drug first and then move north, this trend will continue until all of the Americas have legalized it and will possibly move to other parts of the world. The impact of the vote in Colorado and Washington has reached much further than just the United States; the voters in these states probably didn’t know the full implication of their decision.Regardless this is a major topic of discussion and could quite possibly change the world depending on what happens. People say that marijuana is the gateway drug and this could be more true than ever with these laws being passed they will open a gateway into a w hole new realm of economic possibilities and trade opportunities. Work Cited Thomson, Adam. â€Å"Marijuana: Mexico’s Latest Export to the US? † Ft. com. N. p. , n. d. Web. 03 Feb. 2013. . Khazan, Olga. How Marijuana Legalization Will Affect Mexico’s Cartels, in Charts. † Http://www. washingtonpost. com/blogs/worldviews/wp/2012/11/09/how-marijuana-legalization-will-affect-mexicos-cartels-in-charts/. N. p. , n. d. Web. 3 Feb. 2013. Johnson, Tim. â€Å"U. S. Marijuana Vote May Have Snowball Effect in Latin America. † The Seattle Times. N. p. , n. d. Web. 03 Feb. 2013. . Graham, Dave. â€Å"Ally of Mexico's Pena Nieto Backs Export of Marijuana. † Reuters. Thomson Reuters, 08 Nov. 2012. Web. 03 Feb. 2013.

The Planet Takes Care of Us, Not We of It

â€Å"The planet takes care of us, not we of it. † One could say that the planet earth is a system, interacting with objects in space such as the sun and the moon. The mass and diameter of these objects, their distance from earth and the amount of heat they radiates makes the conditions on earth ideal for life to exist. Over the years, humans have begun to consume at a much faster rate than before. Yes, fossil fuels like coal, natural gas and oil are being used at a greedy rate, but the ground is busy making some more.Yes, too many trees providing shade, oxygen, clean air and water, fruit and nuts are being cut down to produce wood products such as paper, furniture and housing, but it’s not like we’ve run out of oxygen†¦ the world always seems to work itself out. A problem is detected, the loophole discovered, and our planet renovates and replenishes itself. The earth doesn’t need our help, and even if it did, I don’t think we are prepared to o ffer it. Humans are greedy little children, and we never had to grow up because Mother Nature was always there for us even when we are not there for her.Saving the world is a grand gesture needs a large amount of energy and people, and it would never happen that all the people of the world come together with one goal, to save the planet. We don’t even know how to properly fend for ourselves, nor do we know how to keep peace with our neighbors, so how could we ever even attempt to take care of the biggest thing we know, our home, our planet, our earth, which had been standing tall as it still is, four and a half million years before mankind even existed?This of course, is only one approach to a hugely controversial topic, and the other side says we must live green and â€Å"reduce, recycle and reuse†. I do believe a lot of people want to see that happen and admire the concept, but they are just too lazy to go through with it. Either way, here comes my question, if we we re going to lend a hand and â€Å"take care† of our planet, would that truly be what we are doing?Or is that phrase just a witty twist of words used as a facade to conceal our self-centered nature†¦ Think about it, if we cease to reduce our carbon footprint and encourage global warming, say we melt the icecaps and increase the sea-level, ruin the soil with our chemicals and pollute every acre of the earth with our damned plastic bags to the point where the air is too dirty to breathe, the soil too tired to harvest on and the water too toxic to drink.What happens? Mankind will die out, life as we know it will never be the same, but the planet? The earth will still be here, only we will not. So are we really trying to take care of the planet, or are we just taking care of ourselves? Is us trying to take care of the planet a selfless, humanitarian act or is it just more evidence to our self absorbed nature?

Human Trafficking

Human Trafficking Introduction Human trafficking involves recruiting and forcefully transporting individuals to foreign countries with the aim of exposing them to do forced labor. Human trafficking is different from traditional smuggling of people in that the relationship between the victims and he traffickers continues after their transportation. In most cases, they are passed from one trafficker to the other.Advertising We will write a custom essay sample on Human Trafficking specifically for you for only $16.05 $11/page Learn More It takes place because of the demand for cheap labor and the presence of individuals willing to move from their homes in search of better economic opportunities. It is further enhanced by the financial gains that the traffickers get. Many governments have started dealing with the problem through programs and policies designed to prevent and protect the victims, and take legal actions against the traffickers and smugglers. Although the phenomenon has been highlighted in every part of the world, knowledge about its consequences is still limited. Owing to its secretive nature, details on the characteristics of its victims and what they go through as well the trafficker’s and smuggler’s characteristics are hard to get and often difficult to generalize. The available data is obtained from different nongovernmental, governmental and few academic sources. Due to its negative impacts, there is need to look for ways of preventing it. This essay will look at some of the ways that can be used to prevent and stop human trafficking. Preventing Human Trafficking Despite the fact that preventing human trafficking is the most effective long-term method of reducing or eliminating the practice, many governments have not been using the method. Part of the failure to use prevention methods emanates from the fact that there are no mechanisms for measuring the impact and success of prevention programs in attaining the anticipated g oals. Nonetheless, partly due to the increase in advocates of anti-trafficking and service providers, both NGOs and governments have embarked on the development of stronger practices and policies for prevention strategies. These prevention policies are classified into supply-based, demand-based and reduction of financial gains (Prevention of Human Trafficking 4).Advertising Looking for essay on ethics? Let's see if we can help you! Get your first paper with 15% OFF Learn More Supply-based Policies These prevention policies are interested in the supply of persons who are vulnerable to human trafficking. Their focus is on the vulnerable populations and channels of recruitment and transportation of trafficked victims. The programs are subdivided into four main areas. Awareness-Raising Raising awareness is one of the most common activities in human trafficking prevention (Prevention 10). It assumes various forms and does not only target the public at large and cr itical policy makers, but also individuals who are likely to fall victims in the future. Non-governmental organizations are used to carry out awareness raising campaigns among the homeless and other groups of individuals deemed susceptible to human trafficking. Such groups include prostitutes, youths and migrant farm employees. During the campaigns, they are familiarized with possible scams and the strategies applied by human traffickers. The awareness raising programs comprise of the establishment and promotion of hotlines which provide information on national trafficking, local television, poster campaigns, radio and education materials that tackle human trafficking (Rosenberg 14). Legal Alternatives Migrant advocates have raised the issue of availing legal means of moving into other countries as a means through which the various forms of exploitation that affect transnational migration could be prevented. With reference to this argument, there is a stable number of individuals wh o think that it is necessary for them to look for job opportunities abroad, regardless of whether they migrate legally or not. Making it hard for individuals to migrate in accordance with the law, therefore, compels potential migrants to engage themselves in risky activities in order to look for work abroad, potentially leading them into the hands of traffickers and smugglers. By doing away with the requirement for migrants to take such risks of crossing borders illegally, the provision of legal alternative avenues for migration or temporary work abroad is considered one method through which the role of, and opportunities for, trafficking could be diminished.Advertising We will write a custom essay sample on Human Trafficking specifically for you for only $16.05 $11/page Learn More In the meantime, safe programs of migration are comprised of one method of providing vulnerable groups with the right information to enable them make informed decisions regarding the jobs they concede to, and of empowering them to safely migrate to other countries and look for help in case of troubles. However, it is assumed that there is adequate information available to make judgment regarding the safety of the jobs offered. Reducing â€Å"Push† Factor Conditions Long-term efforts of dealing with human trafficking are geared towards reducing the push factor conditions such as gender, poverty, inequality and lack of economic or educational opportunities. It is estimated that these factors compel people to engage in risks that eventually lead to human trafficking. Some countries have been sponsoring programs that are involved in reduction of poverty, domestic violence, assistance programs and shelters, job training, integration programs and initiatives that prevent prostitutes against HIV/AIDS infection. USAID has also been involved in sponsoring programs aimed at fighting corruption in governments on the basis that reduction of corruption among gove rnments improves state resource distribution making it possible for larger groups of people to access opportunities. In Europe, prevention of human trafficking is interpreted to mean both awareness raising and active prevention activities that ideally look into the primary causes of human trafficking. Most countries continue with efforts of preventing human trafficking by concentrating on prostitution, migration and organized crime. Despite debates about the importance of having comprehensive prevention approaches, awareness-raising is the common prevention instrument in many countries. Demand-based Prevention Policies Despite the unending debate concerning the causal and enabling factors of human trafficking, research has shown that exploitable workers are highly demanded in many countries. Many industries require such workers with the need being fulfilled through trafficking (Belser 35).Advertising Looking for essay on ethics? Let's see if we can help you! Get your first paper with 15% OFF Learn More Demand-based programs operate on the assumption that instituting legal actions against consumers, making services of trafficked people socially unacceptable, educating consumers about trafficking and its victims, or providing information to potential traffickers and beneficiaries about human rights, gender violence and prostitution reduces the demand of trafficked individuals. Reducing the Financial-Gains from Trafficking Advocates have started coming up with policies that limit the financial gains traffickers, smugglers, and corrupt individuals enjoy, which in turn enable criminal operations to survive. Governments have been working towards imposing costs at the individual and national levels. Sanctions are imposed against countries that are ranked among the most notorious in human trafficking. The sanctions may withhold non-humanitarian, non-trade-related help or, if a country is denied such assistance, the funding for taking part in cultural and educational exchange programs is w ithheld. The countries might also be barred from applying for assistance from international financial institutions. At the individual level, traffickers may be forced to compensate the victims (Women, War and Peace 5). The aim of these initiatives is to make human trafficking unattractive by increasing its cost relative to its would-be gains. It is envisaged that with the increasing arrests followed by prosecutions, traffickers will be compelled to conduct an evaluation of the benefits they earn from trafficking. Countries have also been considering the possibility of giving the victims an opportunity to demand compensation from their traffickers. They do this by requesting a compensation order after being convicted and starting litigation against the traffickers in civil courts. Capacity Building Capacity building is an important method of preventing human trafficking. Education and outreach efforts in law enforcement, justice and tourism help in fighting human trafficking. Differe nt officers, who hold positions in governments have been targeted for further training in order to equip them with skills on how to identify, rescue and provide the right referrals for human trafficking victims. In countries like the US, experts have been involved in training local judges, law enforcement agencies, lawyers and community watch groups on how to enhance witness protection programs (Rosenberg 20). Other European countries have adopted the same initiatives in order to improve their capacity to detect and prevent human trafficking from taking place. They also assist the countries of origin to prevent the practice. The above outlined capacity building methods are important in preventing human trafficking. Conclusion Anti-trafficking campaigns have been on the increase in the recent past although the global progress against human trafficking has been inconsistent and hard to measure. To date, most of the work that has been done on human trafficking portrays the emphasis on prosecuting the traffickers. However, prevention might be the most effective way of combating the practice in the long-run. It is important for governments to devote more energy and resources in preventing the practice rather than dealing with it after it takes place. Belser, Patrick. Forced Labour and Human Trafficking:Estimating the Profits, New York: ILO, 2005. Print. Prevention of Human Trafficking 2011. Web. Prevention 2012. Web. Rosenberg, Ruth. Best Practices for Programming to Prevent Trafficking in Human Beings in Europe and Eurasia, New York: Development Alternatives Incorporate, 2004. Print. Women, War and Peace. n.d. Web.

Glycoprotein Definition and Function

Glycoprotein Definition and Function A glycoprotein is a type of protein molecule that has had a carbohydrate attached to it. The process either occurs during protein translation or as a posttranslational modification in a process called glycosylation. The carbohydrate is an oligosaccharide chain (glycan) that is covalently bonded to the polypeptide side chains of the protein. Because of the -OH groups of sugars, glycoproteins are more hydrophilic than simple proteins. This means glycoproteins are more attracted to water than ordinary proteins. The hydrophilic nature of the molecule also leads to the characteristic folding of the proteins tertiary structure. The carbohydrate is a short molecule, often branched, and may consist of: simple sugars (e.g., glucose, galactose, mannose, xylose)amino sugars (sugars that have an amino group, such as N-acetylglucosamine or N-acetylgalactosamine)acidic sugars (sugars that have a carboxyl group, such as sialic acid or N-acetylneuraminic acid) O-Linked and N-Linked Glycoproteins Glycoproteins are categorized according to the attachment site of the carbohydrate to an amino acid in the protein. O-linked glycoproteins are ones in which the carbohydrate bonds to the oxygen atom (O) of the hydroxyl group (-OH) of the R group of either the amino acid threonine or serine. O-linked carbohydrates may also bond to hydroxylysine or hydroxyproline. The process is termed O-glycosylation. O-linked glycoproteins are bound to sugar within the Golgi complex.N-linked glycoproteins have a carbohydrate bonded to the nitrogen (N) of the  amino group (-NH2) of the R group of the amino acid asparagine. The R group is usually the amide side chain of asparagine. The bonding process is called N-glycosylation. N-linked glycoproteins gain their sugar from the endoplasmic reticulum membrane and then are transported to the Golgi complex for modification. While O-linked and N-linked glycoproteins are the most common forms, other connections are also possible: P-glycosylation occurs when the sugar attaches to the phosphorus of phosphoserine.C-glycosylation is when the sugar attaches to the carbon atom of amino acid. An example is when the sugar mannose bonds to the carbon in tryptophan.Glypiation is when a  glycophosphatidylinositol (GPI) glycolipid attaches to the carbon terminus of a polypeptide. Glycoprotein Examples and Functions Glycoproteins function in the structure, reproduction, immune system, hormones, and protection of cells and organisms. Glycoproteins are found on the surface of the lipid bilayer of cell membranes. Their hydrophilic nature allows them to function in the aqueous environment, where they act in cell-cell recognition and binding of other molecules. Cell surface glycoproteins are also important for cross-linking cells and proteins (e.g., collagen) to add strength and stability to a tissue. Glycoproteins in plant cells are what allows plants to stand upright against the force of gravity. Glycosylated proteins are not just critical for  intercellular communication. They also help organ systems communicate with each other. Glycoproteins are found in brain gray matter, where they work together with axons and synaptosomes. Hormones  may be glycoproteins. Examples include human chorionic gonadotropin (HCG) and erythropoietin (EPO). Blood clotting depends on the glycoproteins prothrombin, thrombin, and fibrinogen. Cell markers may be glycoproteins. The MN blood groups are due to two polymorphic forms of the glycoprotein glycophorin A. The two forms differ only by two amino acid residues, yet that is enough to cause problems for persons receiving an organ donated by someone with a different blood group. The Major Histocompatibility Complex (MHC) and H antigen of the ABO blood group are distinguished by glycosylated proteins. Glycophorin A is also important because its the attachment site for Plasmodium falciparum, a human blood parasite. Glycoproteins are important for reproduction because they allow for the binding of the sperm cell to the surface of the egg. Mucins are glycoproteins found in mucus. The molecules protect sensitive epithelial surfaces, including the respiratory, urinary, digestive, and reproductive tracts. The immune response relies on glycoproteins. The carbohydrate of antibodies (which are glycoproteins) determines the specific antigen it can bind. B cells and T cells have surface glycoproteins which bind antigens, as well. Glycosylation Versus Glycation Glycoproteins get their sugar from an enzymatic process that forms a molecule that would not function otherwise. Another process, called glycation, covalently bonds sugars to proteins and lipids. Glycation is not an enzymatic process. Often, glycation reduces or negates the function of the affected molecule. Glycation naturally occurs during aging and is accelerated in diabetic patients with high glucose levels in their blood. References and Suggested Reading Berg, Tymoczko, and Stryer (2002).  Biochemistry. W.H. Freeman and Company: New York. 5th edition: pg. 306-309.Ivatt, Raymond J. (1984)  The Biology of Glycoproteins. Plenum Press: New York.

Global Exploration and Global Empires 1500-1700 Essay - 1

Global Exploration and Global Empires 1500-1700 - Essay Example The use of African slaves was very favorable for planters. First, Blacks were better adapted to wearisome physical work in the hot climate than white Europeans or Indians; secondly, taken out far from the habitats of their own tribes, not having any idea how to come back home, they were less inclined to escapes. In the middle of the XX century almost all the black population of the American continent was the descendants of the slaves taken out from Africa. In total about 13 million African slaves were imported to the British North America and later to the USA. On average, only one from 3-5 captured slaves was brought to a plantation, the others perished during the capture and transportation. According to the estimates of researchers, as a result of a slave trade Africa lost about 80 million lives (Slavery Timeline). In Europe the use of a slave labor was resumed and mass slave trade, which prospered up to the XIX century began. Africans were captured in their native lands, loaded on ships and sent to destination. The Irish captured by British during the conquest of Ireland in 1649 — 1651 prevailed among "white slaves". Intermediate position between exiled and free colonists was occupied by the "sold in a service": people sold their freedom for the right to move to colonies and to work it off there again. Considerable part of the Irish population, including women and children, was turned into white slaves and took out to English colonies in West Indies. During this period People in Ireland cost less than wolves: English soldiers were paid 5 pounds for the head of "the rebel or the priest" and 6 pounds — for the wolf ‘s head (Slave Trade Statistics). In the XVII—XVIII centuries Dahomey played a significant role in a slave trade and conducted fierce fight against the rivals: Allada, which was attacked by Dahomey in 1724 for the first time and captured in 1730, and Whydah captured in

World History of the 18-19th century Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2250 words

World History of the 18-19th century - Essay Example Gandhi’s view on the meaning of civilization was particularly shaped by the socio-economic events of the 19th century. Some of the events included the period of Enlightenment, American Revolution, and Industrial revolution and Western imperialism. Having undergone his education in London, Gandhi understood the western culture and consequently his views tended to compare between the Western civilization and the Indian civilization (Hardiman, 45). Throughout the book, Gandhi argues that the stability and development of a civilization, it should be free from any state of isolation. Unlike other Asian scholars of the time, Gandhi was opposed to the perception that Western civilization was superior to other civilizations and argued that it is a process that every culture must gradually go through. He also believed that civilization destroys morality and religion and came to the conclusion that â€Å"Immorality may sometime be taught in the name of morality†. Generally, the n arrative best captures the general perceptions of the events such as the Industrial revolution during the 19th century.As evidenced in the changes in English economic and social life after the industrial revolution, the revolution was more of a causatory factor than a co-relative factor for the changes witnessed in the 19th century. The transition after the industrial revolution caused a number of changes in the British society. For example as production becomes mechanized, many people migrated to the urban centers leading to increased urbanization. On the other hand, the quick urbanization in turn caused a number of social problems such as increased crime rates and poor sanitation. Generally the industrial revolution that was first witnessed in Britain significantly resulted in the conversion of the socioeconomic order of the time and some of the changes that took place eventually led the way for the industrialization in other parts of Europe and North America. Consequently industr ialization was not a co-relative factor but was a major causatory factor for most of the socio-economic changes witnessed in the 19th century.  

Kingdom of Heaven Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1000 words

Kingdom of Heaven - Essay Example For example, if a film is set in the time of Christ, the people need to be following the customs of the Roman Empire along with wearing the correct robes. They should not be in a three piece suit and penny loafers, unless the movie has to deal with a man out of time. The third responsibility of the filmmaker is to not keep the locations to their accurate size so that the viewer seems as though they were there. The historical piece that will be used to determine the three responsibilities is Ridley Scott’s 12th Century epic, Kingdom of Heaven. Kingdom of Heaven is a film set during the Crusades about a French blacksmith named Balian, who is searching for a reason to go on after the death of his wife and children. A fabled knight, Godfrey of Ibelin, has briefly returned home after serving in thr East. Godfrey approaches Balian and let’s the blacksmith know that he himself is the blacksmith’s true father. Godfrey, then, asks Balian to join him and his troops in thei r journey to return to the Holy City of Jerusalem to help in the city’s defense. The blacksmith accepts the offer of Godfrey. Their arrival falls in between the Second and Third Crusades when Jerusalem is enjoying a period of peace between the Muslims and the Christians. This peace was all thanks to the Christian monarch King Baldwin IV, his second-in-command Tiberius, and the Muslim potentate Saladin. Unfortunately, the peace does last since violent agitators set out to increase their power. Saladin had to bow down to the pressure Godfey and his men stayed o give their allegiance to the king and his community of diversity. The knights, as well as Balian, use their skills as warriors to build a lasting peace. Orlando Bloom (Balian) is one of the main stars of the film along with Liam Neeson (Godfrey), Edward Norton (Baldwin IV), and Jeremy Iron (Tiberias). In Kingdom of Heaven, I noticed that the overall peace between the Muslims and Christians seemed to show the lack of reli giousness. Rather, the situational tension amongst the Christians and the Muslims seem to be more like a backdrop, than a major part of the story. The story is set between the Second and Third Crusades. However, the action and fighting as warriors is more prevalent than the religious aspects of the Crusade that should be more available. King Baldwin IV was a monarch who wanted to convey peace and diversity amongst the religious factions that want to control the Holy City of Jerusalem. Thus, the filmmaker seemed to use the facts of the time period as more of a symbol for the setting, than as the setting itself. The fighting may have been more gruesome for a film that should be more focused upon Baldwin’s Kingdom of Heaven, then the relationships of a lone person. The relationships should be more about the groups trying to vie for power in Jerusalem, than that of a single man. This story portrays single man being effective in the war to maintain the peace and diversity througho ut the city of Jerusalem during the reign of Baldwin IV. However, the portrayal should be how Baldwin could bring about the change in the ancient fight of the Muslims and the Christians, not how a French blacksmith becomes a knight to help defend the ancient, Holy City from the agitators that wish to overthrow Baldwin IV and claim power for themselves. I feel the overall responsibility of keeping the accuracy of the facts was a little massacred instead of being kept intact by the screenwriters or even portrayed effectively by

Effects of Disputes in Construction

Effects of Disputes in Construction This chapter initially deals with the causes and effects of delays in projects relating to the construction, engineering and IT industries, and the resulting disputes within them. The analytic comparison of delays in each of these industries has then been carried out. Various project case studies, pertaining to the causes and effects of delays and disputes, belonging to each of the above industries have then been included to give a reader a wider scope of the subject matter. The characteristics of certain delay mitigation strategies and dispute resolution techniques have also been investigated for the duration of this chapter. Delays in the Construction Industry Construction industry according to George, O. (1990) may be defined as that sector of the economy which plans, designs, constructs, alters, maintains, repairs, and eventually demolishes buildings, of all kinds, civil engineering works, mechanical and electrical engineering structures and other similar works. Delays on projects are a universal phenomenon and the construction industry is no exception. It has been regarded as a serious problem by Al-Khalil and Al-Ghafly (1999), who further state that it proves costly for both owners and contractors. According to the authors, the owner loses by missing out on the potential revenues from the use of the project and by increased overhead cost for contract administration. Meanwhile, the contractor is said to lose as a result of increased overhead costs and lost opportunities for new projects because of diminished financial capabilities. In relation to project management, a project manager firstly needs to be concerned with the causes of delays, which could be at a national level (Kumaraswamy Chan, 1997; Kaming et al, 1997; Mezher and Tawil, 1998; Al-Khalil and Al-Ghafly, 1999) or at a project level (Rad, 1979; Charoenngam and Yen, 1999; Olima and KAmumu, 1999). The next step is for them is to realise the effects of delays in terms of a projects legal disputes (Scott, 1993), cost overruns (Mansfield et al, 1994), delay analysis techniques (Bordoli and Baldwin, 1998) etc. Delay mitigation is the next step which focuses mainly on the strategies used for construction schedule comparison and accelerated working (Conlin and Rectic, 1997; Noyce and Hanna, 1998). The last step would be to analyse or examine the drawbacks of delay mitigation strategies (Cristian and Hackney, 1995) which could contribute to additional delays. The above four steps involving delays in construction projects must be considered by project managers in order to achieve successful project completion and delivery. In a hypothetical case assuming a project is delayed because materials arrive late on site, the project manager must be able to recognise it as a delay factor. Secondly, the project manager must be responsible for calculating the effects of delays, prior to deciding upon the most suitable delay mitigation strategy. If the project manager decides to use overtime work, then this according to Horner and Talhouni (1995) will lead to a reduction in productivity of the workforce, hence a new delay factor would be added to the project. According to Oztas (1995) the word delay is a relative term in construction. The way the contractor, the client, the architect and the engineer view a delay or its effect to the project most of the times, if not all, vary significantly. The differences in opinion can be explained by the role each party plays in the contract, the cost implications a delay causes to each party, or the legal disputes which arise from the delay. Understanding the nature of construction delays will enhance the ability of the project manager to handle them. All four dimensions must be analyzed in order to have a balanced view of the subject. The following section sheds light upon some of the causes of delays in construction projects around the world, its legal aspects and its effects. Causes of construction delays According to a survey conducted within the construction industry by Sambasivan, M. Wen Soon Y. (2007), the ten most important causes of delay were found to be (1) contractors improper planning, (2) contractors poor site management, (3) inadequate contractor experience, (4) inadequate clients finance and payments for completed work, (5) problems with subcontractors, (6) shortage in material, (7) labour supply, (8)equipment availability and failure, (9) lack of communication between parties, and (10) mistakes during the construction stage. These causes of delay were not far from what Sweis, G.et al (2008) had investigated during their survey. They claimed that the most important causes of delay were due to (1) Poor planning and scheduling of the project by the contractor, (2) Financial difficulties faced by contractor, and (3) too many change orders from owners. As far as commercial projects are concerned, the main cause of delay arises from delay in payment, since there is argument between the two parties on how financial backup will be provided. Odeh and Battaineh (2001) carried out a survey within construction projects involving traditional contracts, in which they identified and categorised the causes of delay according to the project participants. They state that as far as clients are concerned, delay factors include owner interference, finance and payments of completed work, slow decision making and unrealistic contract duration imposed by owners. Delay factors relating to contractors on the other hand include site management, improper planning, inadequate contractor experience, mistakes during construction, improper construction methods and delays caused by subcontractors. Consultant related delay factors include contract management, preparation and approval of drawings, quality assurance/ control, and long waiting time for approval of tests and inspections. Apart from the above mentioned categories, the authors also mention contractual relationship issues, which include major disputes and negotiations during construction, inappropriate organisational structure linking all parties involved in the project, and lack of communication between parties. External factors contributing to project delays include weather conditions, changes in regulations, problems with neighbours and site conditions. The authors failed to mention the political and socio-economical factors, which would have been a helpful addition to this study considering delays in construction projects are not all the same. Legal aspects According to Carnell (2000), delay claims are perhaps the most common form of construction disputes. Scott (1993) found that more than 50% of contracts in the UK end up with extension of time claims with supporting evidence submitted. A similar survey by Yogeswaran et al (1999) investigated 67 civil engineering projects in Hong Kong where claims arose. These claims were a result of different factors, mainly including extension of time due to bad weather (82% of projects), variation orders (49% of projects) and delays caused by utility undertakers. However, it should be noted that claims for extra time or cost do not necessarily end in disputes in all projects. From a legal point of view, according to Kraeim Diekmann (1987), delays factors are classified into three main categories: (1) Compensable, (2) Excusable, and (3) Non-Excusable. According to Scott (1993), the latter terms are used in the United States, while in the UK the terms used are: (1) the client is responsible, neither party is responsible and (3) the contractor is responsible. Irrespective of the terminology used in either country, Arditi and Patel (1989) explain the above as: Compensable/Client is responsible: Delays entitled compensable are not caused by the contractor but by the owner. The main delay factors included in this category are: owners delay in providing access to site, changes in scope of work, non payment to the contractor, improper or delayed issue of change orders, inadequate information and supervision by the owner. When a compensable delay occurs, the contractor is allowed time extension and extra costs for losses. Non-Excusable/Contractor is responsible: Non-excusable delays are caused by the contractors inefficiency. The main delay factors in this category include: shortages of qualified workers, technical personnel or materials, failure to coordinate work (i.e. deficient planning), delays caused by subcontractors, defective work that has to be redone, slow mobilisation, low contractor productivity and accidents. The owner in this case reserves the right to charge the contractor liquidated damages for such delays in the total project duration. Excusable/Neither party is responsible: Delays in this category are caused by events that are beyond the contractor or the clients control. Factors include extreme weather conditions, fire, flood, strikes, and lockouts; vandalism, war, epidemics, damages caused by parties others than the contractor or the owner, government actions or construction law. According to Kraeim and Diekmann (1987), excusable delays are listed in a clause in the contract document (i.e. Force Majeure Clause) and that the sole relief for excusable delays is time extension. The authors argue that the situation becomes more complicated in the case of concurrent delays. These types of delays occur when the overall delay is caused by several factors, some of which are within the owners responsibility and some of which are within the contractors responsibility (Arditi and Patel, 1989; pp.146). The effects of delays To investigate the effects of delays in large construction projects, Assaf Al-Hejji (2006) conducted a survey in which it was concluded that 70% of the projects experienced time overruns. Their research showed that only 30% of construction projects were completed within the scheduled completion dates and that the average time overrun was between 10% and 30%. A similar observation was made by Aibinu Jagboro (2002), whose findings for the Nigerian construction industry showed that time and cost overruns were frequent effects of delays. They had stated in their research that delay had significant effect on completion cost and time of 61 building projects being studied. In a similar but a more integrated approach to finding the effects of delays in construction projects, Sambasivan Wen Soon (2007) identified six effects of delays to be (1) time overrun, (2) cost overrun, (3) disputes, (4) arbitration, (5) litigation, and (6) total abandonment of the project. A delay affects both the construction schedule and the cost of a project. The impact on the construction schedule depends mainly on the activities in which the delay is encountered and the existence or not of float in the delayed activities. The cost effects are mainly related with the types of costs associated with the delayed activity, e.g. the liquidated damages for delay. In order to make a general statement, the author believes that the time value of money should be taken into account. The most likely effect of delay is the reduction of the NPV of the investment. Furthermore, as Thomson (1995a) state, since most recourse costs in construction projects are time related, consequently any extension of programme will lead to increased costs. An analysis of the two main effects follows. Impact on the construction schedule Bordoli and Baldwin (1998) classified delay factors in six types according to their impact on the construction schedule. These types are: Date delays: an activity cannot start or finish until a specific date irrespective of when preceding activities were carried out or were planned to be carried out. For example, a delay of this type occurs when the delivery of plant or materials is scheduled for a specific date without which the work cannot start. Total delays: Complete stoppage to all parts of the works occurs. For example, strikes and lockouts or postponements of the works. Extended delays: Duration of an activity is extended. For example when an increase in the work content of an activity occurs. Additional delays: New construction activities are added to the planned work. New or additional work is incorporated into the project, subsequent to the production of the original programme. Sequence delays: Activities cannot start or finish in the sequence originally planned. For example, changes in specification of materials or techniques which result in activities no longer able to be carried out concurrently. Progress delays: when the progress of the works was less than that planned. This could be the result of the use of inadequate labour, plant or materials, or even excessively ambitious time estimates. Examining the latter types of delays gives an overview of the impact delays on the construction schedule. The effect of a delay on the schedule can range from few minutes, hours, days to complete stoppage of works. The schedule is altered in many ways. Activities must be re-planned, changes to the sequence of work can occur, logical linkages between activities could change and resources have to be reallocated. As far as the duration of work is concerned the main factor that must be considered is float. When a delay occurs in critical activities it is clear that the duration of the project will increase if the contractor doesnt accelerate works. When a delay occurs in non critical activities then what is important to consider is the ratio between the float and the duration of the delay. If the float is consumed then this will, in turn, change the critical path of the project by concerting a non critical activity to a critical one. If on the other hand, the delay is less than the float then the overall duration of the project is not affected but the risk of overrun is increased, by the increased probability of further critical delays. Cost overruns There are several scenarios related with the cost overruns of construction delays. Oztas (1995) mentions that delays lead to additional expenses incurred by the contractor and that most of them occur due to prolonging the job, reallocation of work forces, storing extra materials on site, wasting materials, or loss of productivity or workers due to reassignment. It is vital for the project manager to assess the cost overruns in terms of materials, equipment and labour costs. There are several types of costs associated with any delayed activity in a project. Thompson (1995a) identify these as being (1) fixed charges incurred at any point in time, (2) quantity proportional charges related to quality of work completed, output of deliveries of materials, and (3) time related charges which, according to the author, refers to the cost of resources. The author argues that the sensitivity of delay in terms of cost will be determined by the relative contribution of each type of cost mentioned above, and the existence of float. Delays occurring on a critical activity lead to an extension of the duration of the project in most cases, which, in turn lead to an increase in both fixed and time related costs. Another major concern for a project manager in terms of construction costs are liquidated damages. Scott (1993) explains liquidated damages as being a sum of money, usually specified in the contract, being deducted from the contractor in the event of a failure to complete the project in the specified time frame. They state that the contract normally specifies a predetermined time after which it must be substantially completed and available for use. An example of a standard form of contract including a clause of liquidated damages includes the ICE Condition of Contract Edition 7, Clause 47 (Hawker, 1999). Delays as a benchmark of success Construction delays are not necessarily a root cause of failure of a project. Many authors investigating the causes of success or failure of projects agree that the classical triangle of cost,time and quality should not be used as the only measure of success of projects (Morris and Hough, 1987; Gardiner and Stewart, 2000; Atkinson, 1999). The latter argument is based on the fact that most construction projects encounter both time and cost overruns. Rad (1979) estimated that the increase in terms of time and cost of nuclear plant projects in the United States was significant. Similarly Morris and Hough (1987) who evaluated the records of more than 4000 projects between 1959 and 1986 concluded that the success rate of projects is generally poor and that overrun values range between 40 to 200 percent. Perhaps the most extreme view concerning time and cost estimates of projects is expressed by Atkinson (1999) who states: Time and cost are at best only best guesses, calculated at a time w hen least is known about the project. The overall conclusion drawn from current research is that construction delays and cost overrun is not something rare but instead a common phenomenon. Since time and cost may not be the best measures of success, alternatives must be presented. Gardiner and Stewart (2000) state, that the Net Present Value of the investment should be used as a criterion of success. They concluded that: It is recommended changing the performance measures that are common today from: The project was delivered on time, to budget, and of the required quality to: The project was delivered with the best achievable NPV and to the required quality (Gardiner and Stewart, 2000, pp.255) Atkinson (1999) considered a new framework to consider success; The Square Root. The main idea behind this new framework is that the there are four categories of success criteria. The first is the classical time-cost-quality triangle. The second is concerned with the maintainability and reliability of the information system. The third is related with the benefits for the organization in terms of improved efficiency, effectiveness and profits. The last group of success factors such as satisfied users, social and environmental uses and personal development. Examining the discussion related with project critical success factors brings into light different aspects of construction delays. If, on one hand, the primary objective of a project is to finish on time then a delay during construction could be the main cause of failure of the project. On the other hand, if the primary objective is customer satisfaction then a delay may just be the effect of design changes, which will lead to the desired customer satisfaction and project success. In all cases the primary objectives of the project will determine the role of delays to the success or failure of the project. Delays in the Engineering Industry The engineering industry is one of the most important basic industries for any economy. It has been referred to by Desai (1987) as being an economys Engine of Growth. It supplies plant and machinery for other industries, equipments to build up infrastructures, automobiles, aircrafts, and a host of other tools and equipments. The engineering industry has widened its base across a broad spectrum and inducted the latest technology in many areas including, electrical and electronics, mechanical, transportation, industrial and other miscellaneous engineering sectors. According to Mahapatra and Biswal (2007), the development of an economy and the achievement of self-sufficiency in various sectors depend to a very large extent on the development of the engineering industry. Since it being such a large industry, it is also not immune from delays. The project participants in engineering projects are known to be consultant engineers, contractors and owners. Similar impacts are observed on project participants in this industry due to delays, as are mentioned above for the construction industry. The following section looks into some of the causes and effects of delays in the engineering industry. Causes of engineering delays Yates (2007) identified a list of common delay factors belonging to both the planning and operating stages of engineering projects. They are (1) Political and Social unrest, (2) Religious and Social factors, (3) Labour disputes and strikes, (4) Technologic and Economic limitations, (5) Government Restrictions, (6) Global technical delay factors (7) Changes in project requirements, (8) Lack of communication between various divisions, and (9) Miscellaneous planning delays . The author explains the above delay factors as: Political and Social unrest: Certain regions of the world are said to be undergoing drastic and violent changes in their political, economic and social environment. Situations like these limits access to foreign contractors working in large engineering projects, and hence are a cause of major delay in project execution. The author argues that the ruling party in such countries are afraid to make political decisions on social or economic reforms for the fear of jeopardising the delicate balance existing between various ethnic groups, political parties and social classes. Religious and Social factors: With the aid of engineering projects being executed in the Middle East, the author argues that foreign contractors often tolerate delays due to religious festivities in these parts of the world, e.g. during the month of Ramadan. It is in these times that local labourers are hard to hire as they are not readily available due to social and economic reasons as stated by the author. As a result engineering and construction firms often import foreign labours into these parts of the world, by which they experience both time and cost overruns. Labour disputes and strikes: Labour disputes or strikes are said to be a common delay factor in engineering industries and tends to disrupt construction or manufacturing schedule. Project managers need to identify and effectively negotiate with the labour representatives in order to stop further delays emanating from such undesirable events. Technologic and Economic limitations: These include factors such as design standards, constructability issues, performance standards, quality standards, material availability, testing, inspection and safety. On the other hand, economic limitations include factors such as inflation, escalation and the availability of cash flow. Furthermore, the level of motivation in the workforce also plays a useful role in limiting economic delays. The importance of motivation in employees has been discussed earlier in Chapter 2. Government restrictions: These include imposition of legal restrictions, regulations and interference by the local government, which tends to disrupt the manufacturing and construction in an engineering industry. Some governments such as Japan put on restrictions such as acts of protectionism, where foreign firms are not allowed to operate in their country. Other government restrictions include the requirement and inspection of certain permits, before during and at the conclusion of the end product. Global technical delay factors: The results which the author has been able to gather from a global survey of engineering projects indicated the following causes of technical delays: (1) Design modifications, (2) Weather (climate), (3) Material delivery, (4) Equipment delivery, (5) Incomplete drawings, and (6) Material quality. Changes in project requirements: This has been termed by the author as one of the most frequent causes of planning delays. Irrespective of where a project is going to be built, project owners are often indecisive in their approach during the planning stage of an engineering project. The need for project owners to prioritize projects is a critical step towards attaining timely project completion. Lack of communication between various divisions: Ineffective communication in an organisation that is planning and designing projects often leads to multiple delays. A project manager who knows how to effectively document processes helps to reduce delays along with steps like formalising the planning process, scheduling routine team meetings, assigning the project to an experienced project manager, or empowering the project manager to act as a conduit for communication. The need of having effective communication in organisations has been discussed previously in Chapter 2. Miscellaneous planning delays: Other factors that cause global project planning delays include the following: (1) Lack of political and governmental support, (2) Hidden agendas and strong individuals pushing their ideas, and (3) Lack of knowledge about planning processes and strategic planning. Legal aspects Certain contractual claims exist in the engineering industry. An example according to Smith et al (1999) includes a claim made under clause 12 of the ICE contract, which entitles contractors, in limited circumstances, to claim in respect of delay and extra cost should they encounter certain adverse physical conditions or artificial obstructions as the work progresses. In such claims there is no blame on the part of the employer or the engineer since adverse physical conditions are a neutral event, and the issue of suspending the works is merely the exercise of a contractual right. Apart from contractual claims, there are certain claims for breach of contract, for example clause 7(4) of the ICE conditions contract entitles contractors to claim for delay in issuing drawings or instructions by the engineer at the right time. According to the authors, the engineers failure to provide information at the right time is a breach of the express provisions of the contract, for which the employ er is held accountable in law.